The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 DOI 10. 1007/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidence–Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification James Sauer ? Neil Brewer ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan Weber Published online: 22 July 2009 O American Psychology-Law Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 Abstract Recent research using a calibration approach indicates that eyewitness confidence assessments obtained immediately after a positive identification decision provide a useful guide as to the likely accuracy of the identification.This study extended research on the boundary conditions of the confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship by varying the retention interval between encoding and identification test. Participants (N = 1,063) viewed one of five different tar- gets in a community setting and attempted an identification from an 8-person target-present or -absent lineup either immediately or several week s later. Compared to the immediate condition, the delay condition produced greater overconfidence and lower diagnosticity.However, for choosers at both retention intervals there was a meaningful CA relationship and diagnosticity was much stronger at high than low confidence levels. Keywords Eyewitness identification Confidence–accuracy Retention interval Calibration Criminal justice systems often use eyewitness identifica- tion evidence when assessing the likely guilt of a suspect or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of eyewitness identification error is well documented by laboratory- and field-based research demonstrating that, when presented with a lineup J.Sauer N. Brewer (&) T. Zweck N. Weber School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail: neil. [email  protected] edu. au Present Address: J. Sauer Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK and asked to make an identification decision, witnesses sometimes (a) misidentify innocent lineup members as the culprit or (b) fail to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the lineup (Cutler & Penrod, 1995; Innocence Project, 2009; Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002; Wells et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors divert investigative attention from the actual culprit and are likely to under- mine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. Their impact has motivated a substantial amount of research aimed at identifying markers capable of discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. Eyewitness confidence is one possible marker of iden- tification accuracy that has been used by forensic decision makers. Not only has confidence been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be considered when assessing the likely accuracy of identification evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is also a substantial literature demonstrating that eyewitness confidence influences assessments of likely identification accuracy made by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000; Brewer & Burke, 2002; Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988; Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982; Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). Moreover, there are sound theoretical grounds for pre- dicting a meaningful confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship for eyewitness identification decisions, which are a form of recognition memory decision.A number of theories of decision making and confidence processing—such as signal detection theory (Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual discrimination (Van Zandt, 2000; Vickers, 1979)—suggest a shared evidential basis for response and response confidence in recognition memory tasks. Both classes of theory hold that confidence stems from the same evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?process and, consequentl y, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , long exposure durations, focused atten- tion, short retention intervals) should also produce high confidence. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased confidence. Although there have been repeated demonstrations of weak or, at best, modest, CA correlations (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987; Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification confidence—under certain con- ditions—has grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996; Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000; Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998; Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2004). Continued research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by two lines of enquiry suggesting that the early correlational work underestimated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) arg ued that the homo- geneity of encoding and testing conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses’ attention to the target stimulus, retention interval, etc. evident in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts variation in the quality of participants’ memories for the target. Thus, variations in accuracy and confidence are constrained, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. demonstrated substantial CA correlations across participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were varied to produce changes in the quality of the witness’ memory for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial correlation provides only a limited perspective on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approach—calibra- tion—provides (a) a more detailed representation of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful information. The cal ibration approach compares the objective and sub- jective probabilities of a response being correct, determining the proportion of correct responses at each confidence level (typically measured on 0–100% scale).Perfect calibration is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses made with 100% confidence are accurate, 90% of all responses made with 90% confidence are accurate, etc. This informa- tion is typically plotted on a graph, with the resulting calibration function compared to the ideal function, to assess the CA relationship. In addition to visual inspection of the curve, the calibration approach incorporates a number of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic indexes the degree of correspondence between the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, and varies from 0 (perfect calibration) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the difference between proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for each confidence level. These values, each multiplied by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an over/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the extent to which participants are, generally, more or less confident than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is calculated by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can range from -1 to 1, with negative and positive scores indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, resolution (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlati on, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) note, the knowledge that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely reliability of an individual identification decision.Studies using the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated robust CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed immediately after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002; Brewer, Weber, & Semmler, 2007). The reason for the poor CA relations typically observed for non- choosers remains unclear.However, it is well understood why delaying the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As outlined above, the relationship between memory quality, confidence, and accuracy is fundamental to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by memory quality but also by various social, environmental, and meta-cognitive influences (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors increases, the degree to which confidence reflects the evidential basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens.Research testing the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious effects of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brewer and Wells (2006) examined the effects on CA calibration of varying instructional bias, foil similarity, and target-absent base rates, while Weber and Brewer (2003) tested the effect of varying the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in basic face recogni- tion tasks. The present study further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the effects of varying the retention interval between encoding and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for three main reasons. First, witnesses to actual crimes com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an identification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK survey data revealing a median delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they noted that more conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average retention interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the c rime and viewing the lineup) is longer. In contrast, retention intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 3–10 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are considerably shorter and less varied in range. Juslin et al. ’s (1996) CA calibration study provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week retention intervals, and their findings are addressed below. The emphasis placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic setting makes understanding the effect of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a matter of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a large body of research literature demonstrating that, across a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in retention interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008; Ebbinghaus, 1964; Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy.While memory strength is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should affect both components of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy will be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Weber & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various manipulations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, independent of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that repeated questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996; Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encoding conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002; Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002; Kassin, 1985; Kassin, Rigby, & Castillo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while the effect of increased retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is predictable, the effect of increased retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numero us studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in conjunction with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not allow specific predictions regarding CA calibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. ’s investigation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 fo r the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants’ memories were challenged by the additional delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory degradation on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an additional CA calibration curve, based on a different dataset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the upper half of the confidence scale. However, for three reasons, this curve is not informative regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) unpublished. Second, the absence of any accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve given such a small sample required collapsing data acros s retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant contribution of data from each retention 123 340 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. ’s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong enough to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not overcome this limitation.Second, after presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding conditions prior to rating confidence improved CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. ’s initial rating task may have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likeli hood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task may have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to these two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. ’s (1996) methodology may have affected the CA relation observed.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, rather than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). While there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the applied setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps re presenting a considerable overestimation), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the researchers provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instruction may have influenced participants’ confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. Taken together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts about the generalizability of Juslin et al. ’s findings.Specifically, given that accuracy was barely affected by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have enhanced calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer e t al. , 2002; Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. ’s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. ’s shorter retention interval condition was already strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, increasing the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identification area is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is understandable given the large number of participants required to generate stable estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has previously exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The pres ent research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, contrasting the CA relation for a virtually immediate identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more realistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval: immediate test versus delayed test) 9 2 (target-presence: present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidence–accuracy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research . Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional grasp of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were approximately 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratory’s large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the researchers and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the target’s 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, identical foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent lineups were created by replacing the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the ‘‘Resultsâ€℠¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent suspect. Procedure Ten female, third-year honors psychology students col- lected data as part of a work experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. Data were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parkland areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participant’s view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.Afte r encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or delayed testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the delayed condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delayed condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant: ‘‘I’m now going to ask you to try and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet†¦ ’ The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of four faces. The instructions continued: ‘‘The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say ‘not present’. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed’’. The researcher then recorded the participant’s response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0–100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the delayed condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 18–21 days after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data collection system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the delayed condition made identification decisions by either (a) c licking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled ‘‘Not Present’’ at the bottom of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an equal number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable effects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both cases, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for choosers a nd non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was consistent with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were significantly higher than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a suspect (e. g. , Clark, Howell, & Davey, 2008; Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0–100%) t o five (i. e. , 0– 20%, 30–40%, 50–60%, 70–80%, 90–100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police suspect in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were included in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of overconfidence. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, according to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditio ns, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are apparent. Visual inspection of choosers’ CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the upper section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are almost identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the standard error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping standard error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- reliable differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification decision, in this case, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect will be identified to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedure for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each successive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate and delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is insufficient to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 0–20 30–40 50–60 70–80 90–100 Overall Immediate—choosers Correct 5 identification Foil identification 1 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 Delayed—choosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 Immediate—non-choosers Correct rejection 6 Incorrect rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayed—non-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 158 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980; Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each rete ntion interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated calculation of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and standard error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), overconfidence (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C Value Jackknife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 1 9 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choosers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation: the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has important effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-po int (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits noticeable underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the overall level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the ‘‘Discussion’’. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1).Consistent with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the delayed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the difference in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in terms of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidence–accuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means replicated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. However, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The applied value of this similarity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the ‘‘Discussion’’. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions pr oduce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any variations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and unsystematic in both conditions. While this absence of resolution might normally be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an applied perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, good encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. Importantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correlation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lind say et al. , 1998; Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. Consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent research—underpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and analysis techniques—has demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the boundary conditions of the CA relation. Variation in retention inter val is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) atypical in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Further, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the consistency of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and delayed conditions, particularly in the upper half of the confidence scal e.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidence and a decrease in the absolute levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be similar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still e vident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. ’s retention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have buttressed the CA calibration detected at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above conclusions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police investigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other compelling evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more persuasive in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant variation in CA relationship associated with inc reased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded immediately after the identification, and not when opportunities for influencing confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the memory trace to degrade, very low confidence esti mates in this condition reflected the influence of misleading meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identification accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses’ memory strength.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of over- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might possibly have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those conscientious enough to respond were also more conscientious—and, importantly, effective—when deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conceivable that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate test condition provided their r esponses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidence–accuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tionships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, predict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked: Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirming feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeated post-event quest ioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampen the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. Moreover, it should be noted that retention intervals long enough to reduce identification accuracy to chance levels (i. . , likely much longer than in this study) would constrain variation in accuracy, reducing the extent to which confidence can discriminate accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. 123 346 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant DP0556876 from the Australian Research Council and a Flinders Research Grant. We are grateful to Monica Beshara, Megan Cant, Danielle Chant, Kelly Ferber, Suzana Freegard, Caitlin Hithcock, Michaela O’Keefe, Lucy Pillay, Carla Raphael, Nancy Whitaker, and Anneke Woods for their assistance with data collection. REFERENCESBothwell, R. K. , Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlations of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 691– 695. Bradfield, A. L. , & Wells, G. L. (2000). 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Methods of Evangelism Essay

Of the two evangelistic intellectual methods, I have chosen to research the â€Å"Four Spiritual Laws.† Bill Bright wrote, â€Å"Just as there are physical laws that govern how the physical universe, so are there spiritual laws that govern your relationship with God. This method is most used in presenting the Gospel to someone because it is simpler. Bill Bright, the founder of Campus Crusade for Christ, originally wrote this as a booklet. This booklet was designed to help individuals to be more effectual in their witness for Jesus. The Four Spiritual Laws are used to convict, convince, and convert. The Laws are as followed: Law 1: God loves you and offers a wonderful plan for your life. [John 3:16] Law 2: Man is sinful and separated from God. [Roman 3:23] Law 3: Jesus Christ is God’s only provision for man’s sin. Through Him, you can know and experience God’s love and plan for your life. [Roman 5:8] Law 4: We must individually receive Jesus Christ as Savior and Lord; then we can know and experience God’s love and plan for our lives. [John 1:12] According to my research the advantages of using the Four Spiritual Laws approach are, they enable one to be prepared because it is [so simple] and represents the basic truths of the Gospel of Jesus. This method allows you to open up an easy conversation the right way. For example, â€Å"I have been a Christian for years, and I have just recently found a way to express my faith that genuinely makes sense. I would like to share it with you. Have you heard of the Four Spiritual Laws?† At the same time, the most understandable way to explain the Laws is to read the booklet aloud. It gives one the confidence of already knowing what to say because it distinctly pre sents the claims of Jesus Christ. Above all, this is essential to pass on to a non-believer (2 Timothy 2:2). Furthermore, in using this method you can explain all the marvelous things that are waiting for you when you receive Jesus as your Lord. Declaring what the Bibles says, â€Å"If you declare with your mouth, â€Å"Jesus is Lord,† and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For it is with your heart that you will believe and are justified, and it is with your mouth that you profess your faith and are saved (Romans 10: 9-10). Afterwards, you can encourage an individual to ask questions. Alternatively, there are a couple of disadvantages to using the Four Spiritual Laws. Even though, this method has been effectively used, it can be somewhat confusing to the person whom did not grow up in a Christian culture. An example would be, â€Å"telling someone God has an incredible plan for their life.† This may ultimately sound as if you only have to believe in Jesus, and all your problems will be gone. However, the Bible never promises life will be wonderful. It says, â€Å"Indeed, all who desire to live Godly in Christ Jesus will be persecuted† (2 Timothy 3:12). In other words, even though the Laws explains that you can have an incredible life if you accept Jesus and believe that he died on the cross for you; this is a point that [cannot] be over expressed, but can be reiterated by quoting John 10:10. Another disadvantage in using this method is it does not define sin. In first John, it says that sin is lawlessness, (i.e. Breaking God’s law). While the Four Spiritual Laws does explained sin as being separated from God, it does not explain [what] separates us from God, which in reality is our disobedience of God. Because of our rapidly changing world you cannot automatically assume that everyone understands what sin is. So, when using the Four Spiritual Laws, it is essential to explain sin. Non-believers need to understand that the word sin means breaking God’s laws. Ultimately, this would give the believer a chance to introduce the Ten Commandments, further making them understand the need for a savior. Part TWO- Evangelistic Method #2 Of the Relational Methods, I have chosen to explore â€Å"Lifestyle Evangelism.† In summary, this method is essentially demonstrating ones faith by their actions. It is the most effective way of winning souls. This method should be used on people, whom one interact with the most, people who know someone and see them on a regular basis. Lifestyle evangelism creates a nurturing environment to extend an invitation to Christ. This means an unbeliever will feel a sense of belonging before becoming a believer. Research has shown that a non-believer would be likely to give a believer the opportunity to share their faith, when the believer’s life has proven that their words are sincere, and life altering. In this way, the non-believer would feel a sense of worth before they expose themselves to the Inspired Word. There are some advantages to using the Lifestyle Relational method. In particular, the Father sent Jesus to be the absolute light, to be an example, and demonstrate how people of God should live. We should be living proof that Our Father is who he says he is; that Christ truly is the Son who freed people from slavery to self; and that the Holy Spirit honestly can transform our life. This is truly an advantage affirmation. This example of showing is not a substitute for telling. If words were all we used to explain the gospel, then people would never understand it enough to submit to Jesus. However, showing a person is a necessary preparation for telling. People will always buy into your words when your actions back them up. We must live a life that shows Jesus Christ. Christ told His disciples, â€Å"Let your light shine before men that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven† (Matt. 5:16). This means the way we handle business, the way we play games, the way we prepare for tests, the way we interact with family. Every thing we do should allow Christ to shine daily in our lives. Another advantage of using the Lifestyle Relational method would be that it is the most profitable and productive method. It not only produces but allows one to be converted, as well as become a disciple, which is what Jesus calls us to do (Matt. 28:19). In today’s culture, when it comes to the truth of the Scriptures, people want to see it validated and lived out in another before they will accept it as the valid truth. Inasmuch as, there are advantages to this method there are disadvantages, as well. One primary disadvantage to this approach is that it can be an easy excuse for Believers. Consequently, instead of aggressively and diligently pursing evangelistic opportunities, Believers may convince themselves that if they just lead honest lives, are open and friendly in sharing their faith, God will take care of the rest. The truth is to be an effective evangelist; you have to be more aggressive in your selection of friends; as well as identifying non-believers with whom you relate to comfortably and who you enjoy being around. Another disadvantage to this method of evangelism is that; it is the most customary approach used among evangelists; it is especially universal among those who share their faith the [least] and who are less likely to [know] of anyone accepting Jesus through these efforts. Lastly, this method is one that is discredited by the Scriptures. Part THREE- Evangelistic Method #3 The â€Å"Confrontational† evangelistic method I have chosen to explore is the Door to Door Evangelism. In summary, this method began with D. James Kennedy in 1960. After preaching at the Coral Ridge Church in Fort Lauderdale, FL; James Kennedy realized that he was afraid to confront unbelievers with the truth of the gospel. Surprisingly, being invited to Decatur, GA to conduct a gospel campaign, he was introduced to presenting the gospel door to door. After he had returned to the church in Florida, he implemented the principles he had learned, and called them the â€Å"Evangelism Explosion.† The primary purpose of Door to Door evangelism is to build relational bridges between the community and the local church. The Bible shows us how the Lord used this method effectively during the history of the church, from the time of the early church until today. Door to Door work is part of the church’s ‘Level One Sowing’ strategy. It is going to the people ins tead of waiting for them to come to the church. Furthermore, this method of evangelism is one of the few ways that ascertains each household can be reached with the gospel. With this in mind, there are some advantages to using this method of evangelism. For example, almost anyone can do this technique of outreach; because there are no rare or exceptional skills required. Another key advantage; like all outreach it conveys that the church is interested enough to go out to the people. It also opens up valuable contacts for far more than ordinary evangelism. Lastly, it is a fairly cheap means of outreach, and easy to organize. Nevertheless, this method of evangelism is not without its disadvantages and critics. Since 1973, research has shown and labeled this method to be outdated, old fashioned and ineffective in today’s society. Consequently, when doing door to door work it should be done in teams; and always done in teams when ladies are involved. However, this presents a problem because building mixed sex teams are not always easy to organize. Another disadvantage is that some forms of this method are not suitable for the younger generation. Lastly, it is hard to motivate people to do this form of evangelism. In essence, once they begin, many individuals find it enjoyable and much easier than expected. Part FOUR – Application of These Methods to Your Own Life The method that I have chosen that suits me best is Lifestyle Evangelism. I chose this one because when Jesus said, He did not come to â€Å"to be served, but to serve, and to give His life,† He was not just explaining His mission; He was showing us how to live (Matt. 20:28). For me, living a life that is Holy and acceptable in God’s eyes is the best way to show others how much work He has done in me, for me and through me. This method works best for me because, when I walk the walk, I can talk the talk because it shows. This allows me to introduce Jesus to many of the people around me, from the grocery store to the car wash. Even when I am not actively evangelizing I am because of my lifestyle. I may not always see the role I play in different people lives, but according to our text states we should constantly plant the seeds of gospel. There are some whom will plant and others will water. This role of evangelism is comfortable for me. It allows me to approach non-believers with confidence, to share my testimony. Being an evangelist for Jesus has become cool, and why not? Personally, it feels incredible to choose good over evil. Living an acceptable life for Christ, is allowing God to shape my character into the likeness of Him. Evangelizing should not be something we do every now and again, but it should be the way we are call to live. My attitude should be the same as Jesus. Apostle Paul said it like this, â€Å"In your relationships with one another, have the same mindset as Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature of God, did not consider equality with God something to be used to his own advantage, rather he made himself nothing by taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness (Philip. 2:5-7). While writing this paper, I received a compliment from a stranger. I thought it was the best compliment I have ever received. It was, â€Å"Miss, are you a Pastor or Evangelist, I ask because you have an [anointed] air about you.† I was taken back, and when I thought about it, tears fell. This is my daily prayer that I would decrease, and God would increase in me. References BibleGateway.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.biblegateway.com Bright, B. (n.d.). Four Spiritual Laws Online. Retrieved from http://www.campuscrusade.com/index.html Earley, D., & Wheeler, D. (n.d.). Spiritual Farming. In Evangelism Is: How to Share Jesus with Passion and Confidence (pp. 85-92). Relational Evangelism. (n.d.). Http://www.cmfhq.org/Portals/0/acrobat/training/Rel_Evangelism Stewart, D. J. (n.d.). Confrontational Soul Winning †¦Verses Lifestyle Evangelism. Retrieved from http://www.jesus-is-savior.com/Believer’s%20Corner/confrontational_soulwinning.htm You Can Share The Gospel. (n.d.). MTA BIBLE. Retrieved from http://www.mtabible.com/evangelism-methods/10-four-spiritual-laws.php

International Business Promotion Research Paper

International Business Promotion - Research Paper Example Reliance on websites for health information has grown steadily given the increase in international trade. Different hospitals have employed different strategies when developing their websites to meet the needs of their clients. Texas hospital website has two distinct sections, patients and families section and a section for the health professional (Texas Children’s Hospital, 2012). The website carries popup messages where the purpose of the hospital is described as ‘to heal the child’. Moreover, the pop up messages advertise the services offered by the hospital and describe its commitment to superior services ‘now delivering miracles’. The websites give a guarantee to the clients that its specialists are always advancing their pediatric care daily to ensure their services are up-to-date to emerging medical concerns. On Texas Children Hospital website, patients can find a specific doctor, view their professional qualifications and book an appointment ( Texas Children’s Hospital, 2012). Moreover, customers can view all the departments or services offered and the time one can assess such services. Additionally, the specific location of such services well described and the professionals working in that department. This gives assurance to the customers that they receive quality services from accredited care givers. Given that previous health record is important for future visits to Texas Children Hospital or another hospital. Texas Children’s Hospital has an account for parents to access the health record of the children. Stanford Hospitals and Clinics have developed a website to serve its international customers. Under the international medical services section, Stanford Hospital describes that it offers superior services to its customers pointing out that patients from different parts of the world travel to the hospital annually (Stanford Hospitals and Clinics, 2012). This is a strategy to give confidence to a patient in a dilemma either to go treatment at Stanford or seek treatment in their local country where the hospital assures them that it is worthwhile to make a trip to Stanford Hospital. The hospital promises its international visitors individualized care that is able to meet the needs of the patients and their families before and after treatment. The hospital has a personal patient coordinator who in addition to arranging for a patient’s visit to the hospital organizes for their stay at in San Francisco Bay Area (Stanford Hospitals and Clinics, 2012). This demonstrates a commitment to customer service. The hospital website outlines the services offered by hospital including identifying a specific doctor to meet the medical needs of the patients and interpretation of languages which is a strategy to ensure that some patients do not feel left out. To ensure that patients prepare themselves for the visit, they are given an estimate of their medical bills. Patients can book for appoint ments online thereby reducing time wastage when travelling for treatment. At Phuket International Hospital, offering services to patients from diverse backgrounds has led the hospital employ international staff. At this hospital, the management recognized importance of effective diagnosis and, therefore, language barrier is dealt with by ensuring that the employees speaking a variety of languages. The hospital helps its patients make insurance claims and liaises with the embassy,

Genetically modified foods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Genetically modified foods - Essay Example How GM food production is likely to affect health, environment, and ecology at large. Annotated Bibliography Chen, Li; Lee, Dong; Song, Zhi; Suh, Hak; Lu, Bao. â€Å"Gene flow from cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) to its weedy and wild relatives†. (2004). Annals of Botany, 93, 67–73. Authors are researchers at reputed universities at South Korea and China. The article describes how outcrossing could lead to undesired transfer of genes to non-target crops and culminate into a new issue with unknown results creating long-term ecological consequences. Authors strongly recommended that while growing GM foods an isolation zone must be established to prevent outcrossing. The experiments were conducted with rice at two places in China and South Korea. The resource is valuable in the sense that gene transfer technology should be used with caution. â€Å"Food Standards Agency†. GM Crops and Foods: Follow-up to the Food Matters Report by Defra and the FSA. Web. 9 June 2013 h ttp://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/foodmattergmreport.pdf Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and Food Standards Agency have prepared a report on matters of food security pertaining to GM crops and foods. The report highlights how delayed approvals from EU for GM crops could impact availability of animal feed for livestock. The report informs about current EU position and how GM foods are regulated and its likely implications for consumers. The report is important to understand the EU stand in reference to the GM foods for animal feed purposes. â€Å"Friends of the Earth†. Could GM foods cause allergies? Web 2006. 9 June 2013 http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/gm_alergies.pdf The site based at the UK closely follows environment concerns in relation to various issues including GM foods. In the published article, it has been stated that it is important to check GM food for immune system response otherwise it could be lethal for those who consume it. The a uthors strongly recommend that unless acceptable methods are available for detection of allergenicity, no GM crop should be given approval. The site certainly gives information how GM foods could be detrimental to the health of people. â€Å"GeneWatch UK†. GM crops and Foods in Britain and Europe. Web. 9 June 2013 http://www.genewatch.org/sub-568547 The GeneWatch is the UK based not-for-profit organization aims at investigating impact of genetic science and technologies on health, food, agriculture, society and environment. The site strongly believes that public must be made aware how genetic technologies could cause impact in their life. The site discusses various pros and cons related to GM foods providing a very good insight on this issue. â€Å"GM crops and Food Security†. House of Parliament. Web 2011. 9 June 2013 www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/post-pn-386.pdf House of Parliament is assigned with the task of providing balanced and independent analysis of all ma tters that has the basis in science and technology. Accordingly, the article discusses how GM technique can provide food security in Europe highlighting its impact on environment. The article also describes about the possibilities of producing drought tolerant and herbicide resistant wheat to benefit from this technology. The sight can provide balanced information on the issue of GM foods and crops. Lindqvist, Anna and Verba, Terra. Golden Rice and other

Health care marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Health care marketing - Essay Example Prudent and effective designing of the marketing materials for the two requires the marketers to consider the factors that appeal to the audience belonging to the high and the low socio-economic statuses individually. Specifically, to design the marketing materials for elective plastic surgery, more sophisticated marketing materials like television commercials showing celebrities undergoing elective plastic surgeries, youth magazines, and bill-boards would be more suitable as they are frequently considered and reviewed by the people belonging to the high socio-economic status. On the other hand, design of marketing materials for STD prevention should be easier and the means and platforms to promote it should be rampant. Marketing platforms for STD prevention may include but are not limited to television commercials, radio commercials, advertisements in the newspaper, awareness campaigns in the educational institutions, and STD prevention

Writing journal for the chapter Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Writing journal for the chapter - Assignment Example "By this sound-change, an ae and e in early Old English was changed to a diphthong (ea and ie respectively) when preceded by certain palatal consonants (c, g, sc)" (Baugh & Cable 72). Celtic transmission - Celtic transmission refers to the transmission of Latin words into Old English through the association of Celts with the English. The Celts had adopted a considerable number of Latin words but very few words were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons who did not share a harmonious relationship with the Celts. (Baugh & Cable 74) modus vivendi : The literal meaning of the term modus vivendi is "manner of living". However, it is used to describe a working arrangement that disputing parties can live with, at least until a more permanent solution can be found (Cornog 58). While discussing the amalgamation of the Scandinavians with the old English, Baugh & Cable introduce the term "modus vivendi" to describe the policy followed by the English kings to reestablish their power in Danelaw. Discussing the relationship between the Celtics and the Anglo-Saxons, the author mentions that "In parts of the island, contact between the two peoples must have been constant and in some districts intimate for several generations" (Baugh & Cable 69). Even then it is found that "outside of place-names, however, the influence of Celtic upon the English language is almost negligible" (Baugh & Cable 69). It is this that made me wonder why the Celtic place names were retained and words from other spheres of life abjured. 2. The author mentions that " It is altogether likely that many Celts were held as slaves by the conquerors and that many of the Anglo-Saxons chose Celtic mates." Given that not many words were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, What was the language of communication between the two communities? 3. Why were words like noun "cook" and general word "plant" were adopted from the Latin? These general words might have been present in Old English given that they are

Four major forms of ethnic violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Four major forms of ethnic violence - Essay Example Life for them is a tool for power; some followers viewed it as meat for slaughter. Still others thought of violence as instrument, oddly, for political and competitive leveraging. Sociologist and anthropological experts classify the kinds of violence. These are symbolic violence, lynching, pogrom and massacre. Arnold (2012) defined symbolic violence as a form violence employed to properties of other cultures but no actual harm is done to persons. This is illustrated by attacks done to important properties, places, or place of worship to employ meaning that such violence is authored and directed towards a leader or a congregation of groups representing these edifices (Armold, 2012). The attack is a symbolic communication to intimidate the targeted victims, whether they are institutions, or groups. For instance, in a rage on a film allegedly made by a westerner Coptic Christian pertaining to the life of Muhammad in a film â€Å"Innocence of Muslim,† people who represented the religion of Islam gathered and flocked to embassies of United States of America bearing placards that assaulted the sensibilities of diplomats and its workers. Violence was done whe n its ambassador in Libya was gun down due to the showing of this film and by posting it in youtube, an online medium for vloggers. Lynching on the other hand is a murderous attack done by persons coming from a different ethnic demonization (Arnold, 2012). The attack can be done by hanging or any forms of inflicting physical harm. It may include beating but such kind enough to intimidate the family of the person within a community (Arnold, 2012). This kind of violence is done to send a signal or message to the community that anyone who will emulate the victim’s will be punished the same way. For instance, in the Philippines, some women secretly discussed about a Maranao woman being raped.

The Risky Undertaking of a Business Opportunity by an Entrepreneur Essay

The Risky Undertaking of a Business Opportunity by an Entrepreneur - Essay Example All organizations have an external environment, which plays a key role in determining the success or failure of the organization (Ebert and Griffin ). The external environment of the organization consists of all the outside forces and factors that may affect the organization either positively or negatively. It is therefore very important for any organization manager to have a clear understanding of this environment. There are six external environments and they can affect an organization either directly or indirectly. The six environments include the domestic environment; this comprises of the environment in which the organization carries out its business and generates income. The second environment is the global environment; this is composed of the international forces and factors that affect the operation of the business either direct or indirect (Ebert and Griffin ). The third environment is technological; this environment is made up of the factors and ways in which the organizatio n generates value for its constituents. Four environments are made up of Political-legal environment; this is comprised of the link between the business and the government. A thorough knowledge into this environment is essential for any manager. The fifth environment is socio-cultural and it deals with the society in which the organization operates. It reflects on the demographic characteristics and the customer's values of society. Lastly, there is the economic environment; this section reflects on the relevant conditions that are linked to the economic system in which the firm operates.

Apollo moon landing was a hoax Essay Example for Free

Apollo moon landing was a hoax Essay The US Moon landing program was started by John F. Kennedy in response to the Soviet Unions early successes in space exploration, just in case the world decided that Communism was the way to go. The Moon landing hoax refers to the belief of a small, but persistent, percentage of people who think that the Apollo Moon landings of the late 60s and early 70s were propaganda films produced by NASA to embarrass the USSR in the cold war. First I will start talking about the central claims and evidence that proof why Apollo moon landing wasn’t a hoax. There is quite a lot of evidence to proof that Apollo moon landing wasn’t a hoax. There is a large quantity of lunar surface samples for example rocks that was brought back by the Apollo missions. These samples are the same than those brought back by Soviet Union missions and they aren’t alike any rock on earth. Many international scientists have spent their entire careers studying these things and If they prove that this rocks didn’t come from the Moon, it would degrade their scientist names in an instant. There is a large number of photographs and videos taken on the Moon, that shows that they really went to the moon. Close up footage of dust being kicked up by the astronauts on the Moon or raised by the wheels of the lunar shows that the dust fell parabolically, as expected in a vacuum. If the landing footage were shot on Earth, the dust would float around in the air before falling to the ground. There is not only photograph to proof Apollo moon landing there is also people to corroborate the evidence. People who made the journey are still alive and able to testify the fact along with the thousands of people who worked on the project. Some people claim the use of reflectors. These reflectors have been used extensively by other researchers. The use of reflector caused many theorists to believe that the moon landing was faked. There are groups that accept that NASA went to the moon, however, the things they saw were so incredible they had to hide the evidence of aliens. On the other ha nd there are Conspiracy theories that reveal that the Apollo moon landing couldn’t be possible. Members of the Hare Krishna movement refuse to accept the landings, because it would contradict what their holy texts say about the Moon (for example, that it is further away than the Sun, surrounded by fire and ice) others believed. Others said that the astronauts  only went into Earth orbit. This is usually connected to the claim that the space was filled with deadly radiation that could kill astronauts. People believed that the earlier landings were faked, but that NASA finally managed to get there some time in the 70s. They state that the United States faked reports of the original landing to threat the Soviet Unions attempts during the Space Race of the Cold War. Apart from some conspiracy theories there is also evidence that shows that Apollo moon landing was a hoax. I will analyze some of the evidence the technology, the flag, the transmission and finally the environment. Bart Sibrel said that the level of United States and USSR space technology as evidence that the Moon lan dings could not have happened. For much of the early stages of the Space Race, the USSR was ahead of the United States, yet in the end, the USSR was never able to fly a craft to the Moon, It is argued that, because the USSR was unable to do this, the United States should have also been unable to develop the technology to do so. Another part of the moon landing hoax theory deals with the American flag. The picture that was sent back showed this flag moving as in a wind. Some believers in the moon-landing hoax feel that this was proof that this picture had been taken on earth and not the result of a moon landing. The fact that the flag moves in the wind when there is no wind on the moon could lend some degree of credibility to the belief that this was a hoax. There should have been more than a two-second delay in communications between Earth and the Moon because of the distance between the earth and moon. Typical delays in communication were about 0.5 seconds. Scientists claim that the delays were only half a second are untrue, as examination of the original recordings shows. Also, there should not be a constant time delay between every response, as the conversation is being recorded at one end Mission Control. Responses from Mission Control could be heard without any delay, as the recording is being made at the same time that Houston receives the transmission from the Moon. The Moons surface during the daytime is so hot that a filming camera would have melted, as there is no atmosphere to efficiently protect the lunar surface from heat; heat on the moon would affect devices such as cameras. The surface does get very hot at lunar noon; every Apollo landing was made shortly after lunar sunrise at the landing site. In conclusion given to the context of the moon landings and that of the Space Race with the Soviet Union, there are many, many reasons why  people would prove that the landings were faked for a political and monetary gain, pure fame, and so on. There isn’t a real proof revealing the landings by a first-hand knowledge, or evidence no only a photograph that could be fixed on a studio. If we assume a conspiracy exists, we need to know what it involves. Given the number of people that would need to be paid off to stay silent, the effort required to pull the attention over the USSRs eyes, the ground based fakery rockets, launches, control rooms fakery such as moon rocks and the photography and video taken from the moon.

Holfstede’s Cultural Constraints Essay Example for Free

Holfstede’s Cultural Constraints Essay In his article â€Å"Cultural Constraints in Management Theories,† G. Holfstede (1993) argues his main point that there is really no universal management theory, such that the means to manage organizations greatly vary across countries and cultures. For instance, the concept of management in the United States is different from, say, Asia or Europe, let alone apply to the two latter regions. A specific management concept or practice may be accepted in America but it does not mean that it is also accepted in some other part of the world. Holfstede begins by exploring the origins of the concept of management in cultures in varying times and notes the differences in the management theories. For example, managers are said to be cultural heroes in British and American regions while Germans see the engineer as the one having a heroic role precisely because German presidents and CEOs already have mastered their specialized skills and, hence, does not call for a manager. In Japan, the permanent worker group bears the ‘heroic role’ and that these workers are controlled not by managers but by their group. French people, on the other hand, do not have the notion of managers as Americans know of them. Rather, French workers think of one another as cadres, cadres being a social class obtained by learning at the proper schools and a social class maintained for a lifetime. Another case is that of Holland where the practice of managing people rests on the need for a consensus among all the involved individuals. These practices are established neither by contractual relationship nor by class distinctions but by an open-ended balancing of interests and exchange of views. In essence, Holfstede firmly maintains that the American concept of management theories vary from nation to nation and culture to culture. That being said, no management theory unique to a certain country or culture can perfectly apply to another culture and country precisely because of the variations among these cultures and countries. Reference Holfstede, G. (1993). Cultural Constraints in Management Theories. Academy of Management Executive, 7(1): 81-94.

The Reverse Product Cycle Model Of Service

The Reverse Product Cycle Model Of Service In this essay, I will be evaluate the effectiveness of reverse product life cycle as a theory of innovations in service and to find out if there is alternative model that does a better job in this. To answer the question, I will first look at some of the major characteristics of services and how they compare to that of manufactured goods; I will then look at the three different approaches of service innovation theories. Next, I will look at what a normal product life cycle looks like, how it can be used to explain innovations in manufactured goods. After that, I will look at the different stages of reverse product cycle and evaluate it effectiveness with the help of examples. I will also look at some of its limitations and questions raised by other authors. Finally I will look at the four dimension model of service innovation to find out if it is a better alternative than that of the reverse product cycle. Goods and services are often mentioned in the same sentence, while there are many similarities between the two, they are actually very different. Services are something that is intangible offered or sold to customers; it is not something that can be contact physically. When people purchase a good, they actually own the product after paying for it. But this is not the case in services. Good examples of services are public transports, mail deliveries, insurances, retail banking, and broadband internet. Here we can see, these are products that cannot be owned even if you pay for it. The differences between goods and services are so huge and obvious; it is not surprised to see the innovation processes of the two are hugely different too. Innovations in manufactured goods are often related to innovations in technologies. When it comes to research and development, manufacturing companies focus on improving the technologies and performances of their products. However innovation in services mainly focuses on improving the design of the services instead of the technological aspects. Tekes, a Finnish website defined service innovation as the following : Service innovation is a new or significantly improved service concept that is taken into practice. It can be for example a new customer interaction channel, a distribution system or a technological concept or a combination of them. A service innovation always includes replicable elements that can be identified and systematically reproduced in other cases or environments. The replicable element can be the service outcome or the service process as such or a part of them. A service innovation benefits both the service producer and customers and it improves its developers competitive edge (Tekes) Although innovation in manufactured are much more well known than innovations in services, there were a number of models, theories or frameworks which was produced over the years in order to help and explain the nature of services innovations. These theories and models can be fitted into three different approaches. They are service-orientated approaches, integrative approaches and technologist approaches. In this essay, we will focus on Richard Barras reverse product cycle which falls into the technologist category, it is important to note that the technologist approach is the most common approach out of the three, it focuses mainly on bringing in new equipments and technical systems into service firms and industries. Reverse product cycle was introduced in one of Barras articles named towards a theory of innovation in services which was published in the Research Policy journal in April 1986. Barra realized at the time the importance of services industries in the economies and that most of the economic theories of innovation focuses exclusively on manufacturing goods. Because of this, Barra decided to develop a theoretical model that explain innovation process in services industries. (Gallouj. F 1998) Before we explain how the reverse product life cycle can be used to explain innovation in services, we need to first understand how the normal product life cycle operates. Product life cycle can be separated into four different stages: they are 1) the take-off or introduction stage, 2) the growth stage, 3) the maturity stage and finally 4) the decline stage. (QuickMBA) During the introduction stage, the companys main objective is to promote the product therefore potential customers become aware of the existence of the new products. The product at this stage is new to the public, and its performance is often superior compare to alternatives. The price at this stage is usually high in order to cover the production costs, and the volume of output is often low. The competitive edge at this stage lies in the performances of the product. The nature of the innovation process here is product innovation (QuickMBA) The growth stage, during this stage, customers are well aware of the existence of the product and a number of competitors has emerged, these competitors will offer products with similar performances and merits. the main goals for firm at this phase is to increases or maintain market shares. The price at this stage is often lower than that of previous stage and the volume of output increases also. In order to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals, a firm will focuses on improving the quality of the product which can be done by adding additional features. The nature of the innovation process here is radical. (QuickMBA) Maturity stage, during this stage even more competitors has emerged. The market starting to become saturated. The price of the product will further decrease as there are more competitions around, and the level of output greatly increases. The nature of the innovation process at this stage is incremental. The competitive focus here is to reduce production costs which leads to lower price and increasing output as much as possible therefore selling more units which leads to higher profits. (QuickMBA) Decline stage, this stage is reached when the market is totally saturated and the products technology become established. There are always the threats from newer and more advanced technologies here. When a new technology emerged, the whole cycle begins all over again, with the old technology declined and new technology introduced. (QuickMBA) In his article, Barras argued that the product life cycle as a whole is not driven by one single force. He suggested that early on in the cycle, technology push driving force is predominant where as later on in the cycles where the nature of the innovations are incremental, the predominant force is usually demand pull force generated by users. (Barras. R 1986) Now we understand how product life cycle can be used to explain the process of innovation in manufactured goods, we will now look at the reverse product life cycle which is concerned with innovations in services. Reverse product life cycle works in a complete opposite direction compared to the normal product cycle. The first stage of the cycle involves incremental innovations which aim to increase the efficiency of existing services. The second stage of the cycle is concerned with radical innovations where innovations are focused on improving the quality of existing services. The third and final stage of the reverse product cycle is focus on developing a totally brand new service that is significantly different compared to other services in the industries. (Barras. R 1986) To have a better understanding of the reverse product cycle, we will look at a few examples that were illustrated in Barras articles. The examples we will look at are local governments, insurance companies and accounting companies which are all in the services industries. During the first stage of the cycle in the 1970, companies were applying mainframe computer technology in services organisations. The purpose of the application is to improve efficiency as well as cutting down the demand for labour in services sector. The application of computer technology was employed by insurance company to computerised records of policies. It also provides computer audit techniques as well as internal time recording for accounting companies. Finally it was used by local governments to computerise personnel records and payroll. The applications of mainframes computers had greatly increase the efficiency in these three sectors, it has cut down the demand for labour by a considerable amount. The nature of innovation is incremental and the type of investment is considered to be in the capital deepening nature. The full effects of the mainframes computer became fully conscious to companies by 1979 which lead to the reverse cycle entering the next stage. (Barras. R 1986 ) In the second stage which was round the 1980s, companies began applying mini and micro computer technology in the services industries. Local government used the technology to computerize house waiting list. Insurance companies began to provide online quotations in branch offices. And accountancy used the technology to computerized accounting management and book-keeping services. The mini and micro computer technology is radical rather than incremental; it improves the effectiveness of the services instead of just the efficiency. Unlike the previous stage, the type of investment is considered to be capital widening investment and it has no impact on the demand of labour. (Barras. R 1986) In the third stage of the reverse product cycle, the focus is not on improving the quality of the services anymore; instead it is about creating totally new services. At this stage, companies concentrates on developing a new service that is different and better to other services in the industries. By doing this, companies can create a completely new market. Back to our examples, networking technology was developed in the 1990s and was employed by insurance companies, accounting companies and local governments. This networking technology provides users a full online insurance and investment services. For accounting companies, the networking technology allows companies to offer a completely automatic audit and accounts services. For the local governments, viewdata system became available to the local residents to get public information services. Like previous stage, the investement type here is again considered to be capital widening, however the nature of the innovation is no longer j ust a process, instead it focuses on product. It is important to point out that this stage has a positive impact on labour, increasing the demand of labour and level of employments. (Barras. R 1986) Once the new technology is established and adopted by public, just like the normal product life cycle, the reverse cycle will start all over again and start at stage one again where innovation nature would be incremental and focuses on improving the efficiency of the new product. (Barras. R 1986) Now that we understand how the reverse product cycle operates, it is important for us to examine its validity in explaining innovation is services. In an article named Innovation in reverse: services and the reverse product cycle which was published in the European Journal of Innovation Management in 1998, the author, Professor Faiz Gallouj pointed out the limitations of the model in the third stage. Gallouj argued that the model sees innovations as products. But in services, the product is in fact a process, therefore it is difficult for a process to be explained in a model that was originally designed to explain a product. (Gallouj. F 1998) Gallouj pointed out that Barras model are drawn from case studies that focus only on information and telecommunications technologies in vanguard services sector. And because of this, Gallouj raised two questions in his article. The first being if the model is valid for all vanguard services? And the second question is if the model is valid in explaining technologies other than information and telecommunications? (Gallouj. F 1998) There are evidences to show that the reverse product cycle does not apply to all vanguard services. The first example is legal consultancy in France which is clearly a type of services. An empirical study carried out by Gallouj suggested that legal consultancy in France does not appeared to show a reverse product life cycle. This is because consultancy is not open to technological information and it doesnt handle codified information. Having said that, there are signs of innovations in this activity, but the nature of innovations doesnt fall into the ones in the reverse product cycle. (Gallouj. F 1998) The second example is notary, microcomputers and fax machines were introduced to these services but these innovations are only incremental, there are no signs of radical and product innovations. (Gallouj. F 1998) These two examples have shown that the reverse product cycle isnt really valid for all vanguard services. Barras model is only valid in explaining vanguard services that are greatly influenced by technological evolution. (Gallouj. F 1998) We will now look at the second question raised by Gallouj, whether the reverse product cycle model can be applied to technologies other than information and telecommunications? (Gallouj. F 1998) Again to answer this question, we will look at two examples that were discussed in Galloujs paper. The first example is containerized transport, it was an incremental innovations in the beginning improving efficiency of transports which falls nicely into the first stage of the cycle. In the second stage, the sizes of the containers are made identical and unloading cranes was introduced. These changes greatly improves the effectiveness of the services, the services quality was greatly enhanced. In recent years, the tracking technology has been introduced to this service making it possible to know the exact details of the container at all time, these details includes its ownership, its origins and its destinations. This technology improves the services so much that it can considered being a brand new service. Therefore we can see the innovations in containerized transports over the years fit the reverse product cycle quite nicely. (Gallouj. F 1998) The second example Gallouj discussed is the fast food services in America. He suggested that cooking and refrigeration technologies are incremental innovations whereas computerized menu ordering is radical innovations process as it increases the quality of the services by a considerable amount. (Gallouj. F 1998) From these two examples, we can see the reverse product cycle can be applied on other services other than information and telecommunication. So is the reverse product cycle a good model to explain innovations in services? Should we continue to use it in the future? The model is useful in explaining innovation process when the innovation is technological related, however not all innovations are technological; therefore the model is only useful in explaining some areas of services innovation. Having said that, the model still provides tremendous amounts of insights on how some innovations process are carried out, therefore it should still be used in the future. So are there any other models that are more promising than the reverse product cycle by Barras? As mentioned earlier, one of the shortcomings of Barras model is that it only focuses on innovations that are considered to be technological. Therefore it would be useful to look at Den Hertogs four dimensional model of service innovations which explain four different areas of innovations. The four dimensions are 1) service concept 2) client interface 3) service delivery system and 4) technological options. The above diagram is taken from the international journal of innovation management page 495 New service concept is when a new idea is introduced in a particular market. The new idea only has to be new in the market in question; it can be an existing in other markets. Call centre service is a good example of this dimension. (Hertog. D 2000) New client interface is the interface design between the service provider and the customers. The communication channels between service providers and customers can be innovation itself. A good example of this dimension is electronic data interchange (EDI) (Hertog. D 2000) Service delivery system is similar to dimension two, but it is actual arrangement that is planned internally by the service provider in order to make sure their employees to do their job correctly. A good example of this dimension would be how amazon delivery ebooks using 3g technology onto consumers kindle reader (Hertog. D 2000) Technological option is the final dimension, although innovation doesnt have to be technological, many innovations have technological elements. IT is the most common form of innovations, a good example would be parcel tracking services provided by royal mail. (Hertog. D 2000) Hertog suggested that any given service innovations will have a combinations of the dimensions mentioned above. In fact, quite frequently they become interdependent with each other. Often times when a new service product is introduced in the market, it will need a new client interface design so communication between service provider is clear, also new delivery system should be planned too in order for the staff to delivery the service properly. (Hertog. D 2000) For example Royal mail introducing the tracking technologies of parcels will need a brand new interface (website) for consumers to be able to use the services; they will also need staff to deal with issues with the tracking system that might occur (delivery system) The four dimension model is an excellent framework illustrating how services innovation can be operated; looking at more than one dimension of innovations at a time allows the model to be applied to most services innovation. And because of this, the four dimension model should be superior to the reverse product cycle when explaining innovations in services. Having said that the Barras model still offered considerable amount of insights, therefore it should not be discarded. In this report, we have learnt how the normal product life cycle can be used to explain innovation in manufacturing goods, what are the key features in each stage. We have also learnt how innovation in services worked in an opposite manner by looking at the reverse product cycle, and understood the models limitations by applying it to different examples of services. We also seen what the four dimensions of innovations are and how they can be used as an alternative theory to explain innovation in services and finally we have understood the effectiveness of this model and how it compares to the reverse product cycle.